offering a reward to anyone who reported a smallpox case. Now known as oral rehydration therapy, or O.R.T., the treatment is almost maddeningly simple: give people lots of boiled water to drink, supplemented with sugar and salts. The fact that these achievements are so myriad and subtle and thus underrepresented in the stories we tell ourselves about modern progress should not be an excuse to keep our focus on the astronauts and fighter pilots. The next year, he began opening what he called milk depots in low-income neighborhoods around the city, which sold the milk below cost. Demographers now distinguish between life expectancies at different ages. In sufficient doses, chlorine is a poison. George Grantham Bain Collection, via Library of Congress, Augustus C. Long Health Sciences Library, Columbia University, Fritz Goro/The LIFE Picture Collection, via Getty Images. They walked down a long concrete corridor and into a small and spare room. Similarly, in the 1970s, the British biologist Thomas Kirkwood proposed that aging was partly due to an evolutionary trade-off between growth and reproduction on the one hand and day-to-day maintenance on the other. The Memphis pandas have exceeded giant panda life expectancy in the wild by almost 10 years, the spokesperson said. Smallpox would go on to take the lives of King Louis I of Spain; Emperor Peter II of Russia; Louise Hippolyte, sovereign princess of Monaco; King Louis XV of France; and Maximilian III Joseph, elector of Bavaria. Though unresolved, the long-running debate has already inspired a much deeper understanding of what defines and constrains life span and of the interventions that may one day significantly extend it. As the current pandemic has made clear, substantial health gaps still exist between different socioeconomic groups and nations around the world. But of course, the story of our extra life span almost never appears on the front page of our actual daily newspapers, because the drama and heroism that have given us those additional years are far more evident in hindsight than they are in the moment. In 1815, about 30 percent of all reported deaths in New York were children under 5. During the outbreak of 1711 alone, smallpox killed the Holy Roman emperor Joseph I; three siblings of the future Holy Roman emperor Francis I; and the heir to the French throne, the grand dauphin Louis. Driven by technological progress, human life expectancy has increased greatly since the nineteenth century. Understanding that last achievement as a triumph of chemistry is not so much wrong as it is incomplete. Scientific innovations also played a crucial role in the eradication projects. Farr found that people in Surrey were enjoying life expectancies close to 50, a significant improvement over the long ceiling of the mid-30s. Usually, this means severe developmental delays. (According to the Smithsonian, scientists estimate the lifespan of pandas in the wild to be around 15 to 20 years, while those in human care often live to be around 30.) At the same time, at the University of California, Berkeley, the married bioengineers Irina and Michael Conboy are investigating ways to filter or dilute aged blood in rodents to remove molecules that inhibit healing, which in turn stimulates cellular regeneration and the production of revitalizing compounds. In 2000, Steven Austad, a biologist now at the University of Alabama, Birmingham, told Scientific American, The first 150-year-old person is probably alive right now. When Olshansky disagreed, the two struck up a friendly bet: Each put $150 in an investment fund and signed a contract stipulating that the winner or his descendants would claim the returns in 2150. An individual in the study was marked as 115 years old, a number outside the programs range of acceptable age values.
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